Heart Dissection Lab

SHEEP HEART DISSECTION

CIRCULATORY CYCLE DISSECTION

Q1: What is the purpose of the pericardium?
The pericardium is a double-layered, membrane surrounding the heart and base roots of the major blood vessels leading into and out of the heart. It plays an important role in protecting and stabilizing the heart by limiting the size of the organ.


Q2: Observe the blood vessels connecting to the heart. How do arteries differ from veins in their structure?
Arteries have three layers: a smooth inner layer, a muscular layer, and a thin outer layer, and connective fibers in artery walls. Veins have less elasticity in the walls and are less muscular.


Q3: Place your finger inside the auricle. What function do you think the auricle serves?
The left auricle is a decompression chamber when atrial blood pressure is high.


Q4: Observe the external structures of the atria and ventricles. What differences do you observe?
Atria make up the top chambers of the heart and ventricles make up the bottom chambers. The right part of the heart receives unoxygenized blood and sends it from ventricles to the atria. Atria are smaller cavities but the ventricles seem to be larger cavities.

Q5: 


Coronary sinus

Inferior vena cava















Tricuspid valve


Q6: 

Q7: Why is the “anchoring” of the heart valves by the chordate tendinae and the papillary muscle important to heart function?
The papillary muscles anchoring the cords to the heart wall will contract to counter any stretch in the cord during vigorous pumping of the heart.


Q9: What is the function of the semi-lunar valves?
The semilunar valves act to prevent back flow of blood from the arteries to the ventricles during ventricular diastole, and to help maintain pressure on the major arteries.


Q10: Valvular heart disease is when one of more heart valves does not work properly. Improperly functioning heart valves can lead to regurgitation, which is the backflow of blood through a leaky valve. Ultimately this can lead to congestive heart failure, a condition that can be life threatening.

a. If the valve disease occurs on the right side of the heart, it results in swelling in the feet and ankles. Why might this happen?
The right side of the heart results in the swelling in the feet because the right side pumps blood to the lower side of the body. Reduced blood flow results in swelling.


b. If the valve disease occurs on the left side of the heart, what complications would you expect to see?
Failure in a valve in the left side of the heart – the aortic or the mitral valve – results in left-sided heart failure. This leads to an accumulation of fluids in the lungs, or pulmonary oedema.


Q12: Describe how the left and right sides of the heart differ from each other.The right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen. The left side of the heart receives the oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body.


Q13: Draw and label all structures visible in the interior of the cross-section.

Unit 3 Reflection

Content Reflection

Last year in AP Biology, we touched on the pulmonary veins and its molecular significance of being a specific part. In this unit of Anatomy and Physiology, we learned about the circulatory system's functions and main parts. Major components of the circulatory system include the heart, network of tubes, and blood. Accessory organs include lungs, kidneys, and intestines. Blood pressure is a measure of the force exerted on the wall of the arteries. Blood pressure includes systolic pressure (result of the contraction of the ventricles) and diastolic pressure (result of ventricle relaxation). Blood pressure varies with weight, race, mood, activity level, and posture. 

The human heart has three layers of wall: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. There are four hollow chambers of the heart: the right atria, right ventricle, left atria, and left ventricle. The atria and ventricles are separated by the interventricular septum, which divides the heart longitudinally. The pericardium of the heart lubricates the heart so that there is less friction. The four chambers of the heart are used to receive and discharge blood and carbon dioxide. The SA node is found in the right atrium and is one of the reasons our heart pumps regularly. When impulses move from the SA node to the AV node, the heart contracts. The cardiac cycle is the systole and diastole of both atria and both ventricles. 

The arteries carry blood from the heart while capillaries connect arterioles to venules. Capillaries have thin walls and exchange gases between the blood and body. A thin weakened section of a blood vessel wall can cause an aneurysm. It can be treated with a stent graft inserted through the femoral artery. Atherosclerosis, a buildup of plaque in the arteries, can be prevented by eating less fats in a diet. 

Sickle cell anemia, which got its name from the shape of the blood cell, results in an inadequate amount of oxygen provided to the body. Healthy red blood cells have no nucleus or genetic material. Neutrophils are active phagocytes that ingest bacteria. Basophils stimulate inflammation by releasing histamines. Eosinophils fight parasitic worms and inactivate inflammatory chemicals. Monocytes destroy more microbes than neutrophils. Platelets are cell fragments and initiate chain reactions that leads to blood clotting. 

Heart attacks, caused by atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries, results in reduced blood flow. Cardiac arrest occurs when there is an electrical malfunction. There are two types of cholesterol, LDL (which sticks to arteries) and HDL (which cleans up the LDL). Angiography is when dye is injected in order to determine the issue. Echocardiograms produce images of the heart with sound waves. Hemorrhagic strokes occur when an artery in the brain bursts while ischemic strokes occur when an artery supplying the brain becomes blocked. 

The nose contains the sinuses, which are air pockets in the skull bones. The pharynx is the passageway for food and air. The lungs are air sacks and contain the aveolar sac, which contains the alveoli. The larynx contains the epiglottis and is the voice box. Chronic bronchitis is the inflammation of the bronchioles with increased mucous production. 

Reflect on your learning process and self growth 

I believe that I work better in group environments when it comes to studying or remembering terms. I still find the memorization of the heart terminology to be very difficult, but that is only because my memory is weak. I did worse this unit because I failed to create more study guides to supplement my classroom knowledge. 

This unit, I was able to sleep more due to the outlining of my goals. When I realized my problem, I worked towards solving it by finishing homework earlier and studying in advance. My diet is still fairly poor due to lack of change in this area, but I will work on this long term goal for the future. 

Blood Pressure Lab

Systolic pressure is the result of contraction of the ventricles. The diastolic pressure is taken during the ventricle during relaxation. Heart rate is measured using fingers, while your blood pressure is taken with the sphygmomanometer. Using your thumb to measure heart rate is not ideal because your thumb has its own pulse. Therefore if you try to take your heart rate with your thumb, the two contradictory rates will be confusing.

Steps to use a sphygomomanometer: 

1. Position the pressure cuff on the right arm with the palm up. The arm should be at the same level as the heart. 
2. Inflate the cuff until it reaches 150mmHg. Deflate the cuff by turning the valve and allow it to deflate completely. Wait 30 seconds. 
3. In order to find the systolic pressure, listen closely as you let out air. As soon as you hear a faint tapping, note the reading on the gauge. 
4. In order to find diastolic pressure, at the exact point when you are unable to hear any more rhythmic tapping or swishing sounds, read the gauge. 
5. Blood pressure is written fractionally with systolic pressure over diastolic pressure. 

Unit 2 Reflection

Being healthy is a lot more than the absence of sickness. It incorporates physical, mental and social wellbeing. Sound individuals have the capacity to adapt to ordinary exercises and to adjust to their environment. An absence of illness is an attractive state, yet it doesn't characterize wellbeing, it is not a measure for wellbeing, and only it is not adequate to create wellbeing. 

The health triangle actually encompasses physical, mental and social wellbeing. Mental heath manages how we think, feel and adapt to day by day life. Additionally, this branch includes learning, anxiety administration, and dysfunctional behaviors or issues. Social wellbeing addresses the way we respond with individuals inside of our surroundings. It incorporates general wellbeing, family connections, and companion connections. Physical wellbeing includes the body's capacity to work. Physical wellbeing has numerous parts like activity, sustenance, rest, liquor and medications, and weight administration.


Hormones play a huge role in maintaining health. An essential capacity of leptin is to go about as a messenger to provide information on how much fat is stored. Leptin is discharged into the circulatory system by fat cells (adipocytes) in extent to the measure of fat mass. The more fat a man has, the more leptin discharged. 

Cortisol impacts, manages or balances a significant number of the progressions that happen in the body in light of anxiety. Glucagon serves to keep blood glucose levels sufficiently high for the body to capacity well. At the point when blood glucose levels are low, glucagon is discharged and flags the liver to discharge glucose into the blood. Insulin is a hormone that makes our body's cells collect glucose from the blood. The glucose is put away in the liver and muscle as glycogen and prevents the body from utilizing fat as a source of energy. At the point when there is next to no insulin in the blood, or none by any means, glucose is not taken up by body cells.


I also learned that there are six major classes of nutrients. 

I watched a TED talk last year about the importance of sleep. Not only is it the only way to rest our bodies, it also affects our emotional and physical responses to external sources of stress. People who got less sleep or poor sleep had slower reaction times when driving than people who got a lot of sleep. I thought this related to our unit because an entire pillar of health was solely dedicated to sleep. Out of all the pillars, I believe that my weakest link is sleep. I almost never get enough sleep, which results in a lethargic attitude throughout the day. I think that promoting greater health at Saratoga begins with sleep, so administrators should attempt to decrease the amount of homework assigned to students. 

HEALTH GOALS:

Monday Wellness Reflection

For my Monday Wellness project, I chose probiotics because I'm personally fascinated with the role that these bacteria play in human anatomy and physiology. Over the past few years, more and more research has been done to prove the health benefits of consuming probiotics. The word “probiotic” is actually made up of two Greek words: “pro,” which means promotion of and “biotic,” which means life. Probiotics are microorganisms of over five hundred different types of bacteria that work by enhancing the immunes system to fight off disease and illness.

There are many ways to obtain a healthy dose of probiotics. Probiotic milk is milk that has probiotics added to it, as it isn't a characteristic source of probiotics. Other dairy items that are fermented, for example, yogurt and buttermilk, contain probiotics. Most soy and almond milk brands don't have critical measures of probiotics. On the other hand, there are brands of both that are absolutely filled with probiotics. Simply search for "probiotics" on the name or any reference to live societies. That is a decent sign that the item has been strengthened with probiotics. One of the best ways to consume probiotics is through consuming yogurt. It has great microscopic organisms like lactobacillus or bifidobacteria. Search for labels to make sure your most loved brand of yogurt is a rich wellspring of probiotics. Other great sources are sauerkraut, miso soup, matured, delicate cheeses (like Gouda), and even sourdough bread. The basic element of every one of these foods is fermentation, a procedure that creates probiotics.

Going through the human digestive tract can be extremely trying for probiotic microscopic organisms. The high corrosive levels in the stomach and pancreatic discharges, for example, digestive compounds and bile in the small digestive system can prompt digestive issues. Albeit some microscopic organisms are more safe than others to this anxiety, utilization of probiotics with sustenance, including milk, yogurt and other dairy items, cushions stomach corrosive and can expand the chance that the microorganisms will make due into the digestive system. Eating yogurt may help with specific sorts of diarrhea. By renewing the great microscopic organisms that may have been lost, yogurt can help bring the bad microbes back in balance. On the other hand, in the event that you have fever, stomach torment or swelling, or the runs keeps going more than a few days, yogurt is probably unable to help you then.

Yogurt is essentially refined milk or cream to which you can include sweeteners, natural product purees or fresh fruits. When you make your own yogurt at home, you have control over the ingredients, which means you can modify the sweetness to your preferring, utilizing nectar, maple syrup, sugar or another sweetener of your choice. It is overall much healthier than most store-bought yogurts. Although there is nothing specific in yogurt that gives people energy, it is still a great source of lean protein and calcium.

Although I learned a great deal about probiotics by doing this project, I felt that my execution was poor due to lack of rehearsal. Overall, I would give myself a 7.5 out of 10. Regardless, I'm glad that I chose probiotics as my topic because it affects so many aspects of our anatomy. Who knew yogurt (homemade, of course) could be so beneficial towards our health?

Nutrition Analysis

During this trial period, I realized that my food intake is substantially less balanced than I originally believed. While I was participating in the Falcon Market, I learned to read food labels. I should incorporate this knowledge into my regular diet in order to ensure that I get everything I need. This technique combined with rigorous exercise for 60 minutes each day would probably yielded better results.

I did not eat enough whole grains while I definitely ate more refined grains than I was recommended. Instead of eating refined grains, I can consume more whole wheat bread. This would hep me maintain a healthy balance between the two. In the vegetables department, I lacked red & orange, beans & peas, and starch. The only vegetable I consumed with an "ok" status was dark green. In order to improve my diet, I could mix more peas and beans into my dark green vegetables. This way, I will be able to balance my meal. I am also under for fruits, as I only consumed whole fruit. I could consume more fruit juice in order to balance out the intake to two cups. If I did this, I would be considered ok for fruits. Unfortunately, I was also under for protein, oils, and dairy. I could improve my dairy by drinking more milk and consuming more yogurt. By eating cheese, I can increase my oil intake as well, resulting in a more balanced diet.

I can increase my protein intake by eating eggs with nuts for breakfast. In the afternoon, I could have eaten whole grains with some seafood, like fish. As a snack, I could have had a stick of cheese and some diced apples. In order to end the day with a balanced meal, I could have eaten a salad with some whole grains. If I drizzled some olive oil on my salad, I could probably have fulfilled my oil dietary needs.

If someone consulted me for dietary help, I would probably decline. However, if they were desperate enough to ask me, I would tell them to reduce their empty calories. Sugary sweets should be substituted with fresh and seasonal fruits in order to maximize fruit intake. Instead of eating too many refined grains like me, I would recommend eating whole wheat bread. This is a fantastic way to achieve that perfect whole grain recommendation. Lastly, in order to balance all elements out, I would recommend eating all the veggies first so that the protein, dairy, and oils can fall in line behind.

What is Health?

"Health always comes first." This concept resonates with every human being on this planet, but it is especially hard to adhere to as a student in Saratoga. I think the most important pillar is sleep, which also happens to be the pillar that I lack in the most. Due to the stress from my classes, I find that even when I do have time to sleep, I cannot do so restfully. Humans have no other way of resting besides sleep, so there's no possible substitute. The other pillars are important, but they have potential substitutes. I believe that my strongest pillar is my social one, as I have a great support group around me at home and at school. My mental health is significantly better than my physical health. Through this unit, I hope to learn about how I can sleep better and more efficiently. 

Unit 1 Reflection

            This unit was an introduction to basic anatomy and physiology and histology, the study of tissues. Anatomy is the structure, while physiology is the function. Form fits function as anatomy fits physiology. Physiology considers the operation of specific organ systems and focuses on the functions of the body, often at the cellular/molecular level. Gross or macroscopic things are structures that we can see. Microscopic things are things we cannot see.

From this unit, I learned that anatomical terms help to precisely determine and describe the location of body parts. The anatomical position that is used to describe structures is always in standing position. The four anatomical planes include sagittal (lengthwise cut), frontal (divides into anterior and posterior), transverse (horizontal cut), and oblique (oblique angle).

There are four kinds of macromolecules: lipids (fatty acids), carbohydrates (sugar), proteins (amino acids), and nucleic acids (nucleotides). Lipids make up the cell membrane and provide the cell with a source of energy. Proteins have r groups, which helped with differentiation. Dehydration synthesis helps attach peptides together, while hydrolysis adds H20 to break. Nucleic acids are used to build RNA and DNA, which are composed of a phosphate group attached to a sugar attached to a base. Carbohydrates give cells energy and structure and make up chitin/cellulose.

There are four types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Epithelial tissue covers a body surface or lines a body cavity. The first name of these tissues always indicates the number of cell layers. The last name describes the shape of cells. Connective tissue is the most diverse and abundant tissue and it fills the spaces between organs and tissues. It is composed of the extracellular matrix and cells. Muscle tissue is composed of actin and myosin fibers. There are three types: skeletal (controls voluntary movement), cardiac (contracts to propel blood into the circulatory system), and smooth (responsible for involuntary behavior). Nervous tissue transmits electrical signals from sensory receptors to effectors.

I plan to improve on my knowledge during the next unit by reading the textbook more in depth. Although the class notes were sufficient during this unit, I felt that I could have taken better notes for the video guides. I know that many athletes suffer with inflammation and that many physical therapists must be aware of the symptoms. In class, we learned about the symptoms, including: swelling, warmth, redness, and pain. I learned that these symptoms are the result of mast cell activation, which releases vasodilators. Overall, I think that learning about anatomy and physiology provides me with a lot of information that I can utilize later on outside of the classroom.

The four types of tissues.

A diagram of a eukaryotic cell.

A diagram of the inflammation process.

Sources:

"Blood." BIO 301 - Blood and Body Defenses II. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Sept. 2015.

"Cell Structure and Function." Human Physiology. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Sept. 2015.

"Types of Tissues." · Anatomy & Physiology. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Sept. 2015.

Tissue Lab: Relate and Review

Today, we looked at the real life applications of the tissues we learned in class. The classroom was filled with 14 total microscopes. Each slide held a different kind of tissue. I observed the four types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Epithelial tissue covers a surface or lines a body cavity and provides lining and covering. The first name of the tissue indicates the number of cell layers (simple, stratified, pseudostratefied) and the last name of the tissue describes the shape of the cells (squamous, cuboidal, columnar). Connective tissue fills the spaces between organs/tissues and provides structural and metabolic support for other tissues and organs. It is composed of 2 main parts: the extracellular matrix and the cells (fibroblasts, macrophages, adipocytes, mast cells). The extracellular matrix is composed of a network of protein fibers and polysaccharides that are secreted and organized by cells. We also looked at a blood smear, which is a kind of connective tissue. Blood contains plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. All of these types help with metabolic support. We also looked at cartilage, another specialized connective tissue, and discovered varying amounts of collagen and elastic fibers. Muscle tissue is composed of actin and myosin, and has three different types including skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. The skeletal type was observed to have long cylindrical cells with multiple peripheral nuclei. The cardiac type had long branching cells and was connected to each other by intercalated discs. The smooth type would include spindle shaped cells with a central nuclei.

Human Blood Smear, 400x

Source:

"Histology." Blood Smear, Human. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Sept. 2015.

Blood Cells

There are two kinds of blood cells: red and white.

Red blood cells (erythrocytes or RBC's) contain hemoglobin, a iron-rich protein that allows the red blood cell to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide. Red blood cells look like biconcave disks with a flattened center (much like a doughnut). Red blood cells have no nucleus, which allows the flexible cell to fit through various blood vessels with ease. Travelling through small blood vessels results in cell membrane damage. This damage cannot be fixed when a nucleus is absent. The blood's tissue is classified as connective tissue because it contains a matrix. The fluidity of the blood as a whole is the matrix, but is commonly called the plasma. When the circulatory system brings blood into the lungs, oxygen attaches to the hemoglobin protein. This oxygen is then released when around cells. The hemoglobin then picks up carbon dioxide or other waste gases to transport them away from the cells. Red blood cells have an average lifespan of 120 days, but bones are constantly creating more. Bone marrow fosters red blood cells which have to go through a seven day maturation process before being released.

White blood (leukocytes) cells are vital to maintaining the immune system. They defend the cell from infection and prevents death. While fighting an infection, the white blood cell creates more and more cells for additional support. However, white blood cells only make up 1% of all blood cells. In fact, every healthy mature white blood cell has 700 mature red blood cells.


Sources:

"The Franklin Institute." Red Blood Cells. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Aug. 2015.

"American Society of Hematology." Blood Basics. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Aug. 2015.

"Blood - Texas Heart Institute." Blood - Texas Heart Institute Heart Information Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Aug. 2015.

How Sweet Is It?

Today in class, we tried 8 different kinds of sugars in order to determine sweetness level. We made predictions beforehand and sucrose was used for scale at 100. I predicted that I would only taste sweetness in sucrose, glucose, and fructose. I think that the fewer number of rings indicates a higher sweetness level because the sugars with one ring typically had higher sweetness levels. Fructose, which I  personally found to be the sweetest, was structured with only one ring. I also noticed that the more chain-like the carbohydrate was, the more powdery the substance was. The more granular a carbohydrate was, the more sweet it was. I've seen many of the sugars that I've tasted in foods outside of the science classroom. For example, I have consumed high fructose syrup in bread and ketchup and other sweet foods. I have also had milk and ice cream, both of which contain lactose. Although I haven't had beer, the sugar maltose is used to process this alcoholic drink.

Have you ever wondered how people taste sweetness? Well, the consumed sugar triggers a sweet receptor protein and this sends a signal to the central nervous system. Sucrose, glucose, and fructose all have different sugar receptor pathways when signals are sent to the brain. The sense of sweet taste is actually closely linked to the endocrine or hormone producing part of the brain and nervous system area. Also, people have varying amounts of taste buds on the tongue. This will result in a differing amount of signals being sent to the brain when sugar is consumed.

Source:

How Does Our Sense of Taste Work? U.S. National Library of Medicine, n.d. Web. 31 Aug. 2015.

Works Cited